Which Of The Following Services Do Npscs Provide To Disaster Survivors?

Summary

Following a major disaster announcement, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) may provide three principal forms of assist. These include Public Assist, which addresses repairs to a community and states' or tribe's infrastructure; Mitigation Assistance which provides funding for projects a land or tribe submits to reduce the threat of futurity impairment; and Individual Assist (IA) which provides help to individuals and families.

IA can include several programs, depending on whether the governor of the affected state or the tribal leader has requested that specific aid. These tin can include Disaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA) for workers made unemployed by a disaster and non covered by the land's standard unemployment program. IA tin can also include Crisis Counseling that provides assistance to state and local mental health organizations to assist disaster victims traumatized by an event. IA may as well include Instance Management services that help a country to organize potential forms of assistance for disaster survivors.

All of those programs can perform important tasks in the post-disaster environs to help disaster survivors in reorienting their lives and returning to normal. But the principal IA plan to offer such assistance is the Individuals and Households Program (IHP), authorized past Section 408 of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Help Act. The IHP provides temporary housing assistance also as the Other Needs Assistance (ONA) grants that can provide necessary help for the replacement of lost items such equally piece of furniture and wear. Funds to help whatever household are currently capped at $33,000. This amount is adapted annually according to the Consumer Price Index (CPI).

Federal disaster housing assistance has a long history that is non always best understood by concentration on the exceptional circumstances presented by Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath. In fact, the Hurricane Sandy experience of the last several years may serve equally a better guide to explain the course FEMA housing assistance takes in most disaster recovery operations.

While the Katrina experience suggested a general reliance on motel rooms, travel trailers, mobile homes, and even docked cruise ships, the great majority of disaster housing help comes in the class of repairs to a dwelling to get in habitable and fiscal assistance to cover the cost of temporary rental units, such as bachelor apartments in the disaster area. The employ of mobile homes and travel trailers, what FEMA terms "directly assistance," is rare and generally considered a last resort to exist employed only when other housing options are not available in the immediate disaster area. Just improvements accept been made in this form of assistance and are reviewed here.

This report explains the traditional approach for temporary housing through the IHP program following a disaster, how it is implemented, and considers if the current policy choices are equitable for disaster victims. Equally a part of this test, the written report looks at other forms of housing repair assistance such as the Small-scale Business Assistants (SBA) Disaster Loan Program for homeowners besides as aid that is provided, in some instances, through the Department of Housing and Urban Evolution'due south (HUD) Community Development Block Grant (CDBG-DR) program.

In recent years FEMA has catalogued its utilize of various forms of housing and the associated costs of each. This written report will review those expenditures and provide information on the relative costs, and applications of, several categories of help.

FEMA Disaster Housing: The Individuals and Households Program—Implementation and Potential Issues for Congress

Section 408—Individuals and Households Program (IHP)

Housing assistance for families and individuals following a presidentially declared disaster result dates back to 1951 when special legislation (H.J. Res. 303) in response to flooding in the Midwest included a provision for "providing temporary housing or other emergency shelter for families who, as a result of such major disaster, require temporary housing or other emergency shelters."^one This say-so, which derived from P.Fifty. 81-875, the Federal Disaster Human action of 1950, was only sporadically employed over the side by side two decades.^two

Only in the intervening years, Congress created various forms of aid to assist those who had lost their homes and their livelihood to disasters. During the belatedly 1960s the disaster loan program of the Small Business Administration (SBA) was created too as the Disaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA) program.ⁱⁱⁱ In 1974, the Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (P.Fifty. 93-288) was enacted that established the IHP plan (known initially equally Individual and Family unit Grants—IFG) in the general class that information technology is recognized today.

The IHP has ii wide categories that aid families and individuals who have been impacted by disaster damage; housing assistance and other needs help. The full of all assistance to one household cannot exceed $33,000.⁴ Each household is considered a single bidder regardless of the number of household members.^five In all instances, this assist is intended to supplement, simply not substitute for existing insurance coverage.

Housing Assistance

Nether Section 408, all housing costs are causeless past the federal government for up to 18 months. The types of assistance include monetary assist, direct assistance, repairs and replacement.

Monetary Assistance

Monetary Assist is provided to families and individuals to address the costs to rent alternative housing which can be homes, apartments, fabricated dwellings, or other available housing resources. The amount of the help is calibrated to include housing and utility costs in the afflicted area. It may be possible, in accordance with the section's potency, that multiple types of aid may exist provided based on what meets the needs of the individuals and households.⁶ For example, a family could receive limited monetary assistance for hire while repairs to the home are being made. Similarly, an applicant could as well receive the use of manufactured housing while repairs are being fabricated to their primary residence.

Direct Assistance

Directly assist provides temporary housing units to disaster survivors that are purchased or leased by the federal government. The regime may place the units in existing mobile home parks or create new sites for the units. The IHP price per household limit does not apply to this category since buy costs for units could exceed that amount.

Repairs

Repairs are the preferred form of assistance: making the survivors' habitation habitable and returning them to familiar housing in their community. Such help may keep an individual or family close to their employment or schools. These repairs may too include mitigation measures to brand the house less susceptible to future harm. These tend to exist repairs that can be accomplished rapidly to return the home to use. This type of assistance does not include new utilities or improvements to the habitation, but does make the domicile adapt to current, applicative building codes in the affected surface area.

Replacement

In this form of aid, the IHP makes a contribution toward the replacement of an owner-occupied residence that was lost in a disaster outcome. Given the limitation on IHP funding amounts for each household, IHP awards will not likely pay for the full replacement of a residence. Yet, in the example of fabricated dwellings, for example, this amount may brand a substantial payment toward such a purchase.

Financial Assistance to Accost Other Needs

For help with other needs, Department 408 includes the Other Needs Assistance (ONA) programme. Unlike housing, ONA is cost-shared with the state regime on a 75% federal, 25% state basis. The program is intended to address specific needs created past the disaster'southward touch. Help nether ONA can include clothing, furniture, funeral expenses, emergency medical help, and other needs.⁷ As noted higher up, ONA assist could be i of multiple types of help that might exist provided. This is dependent on what is about suitable to meet the needs of the household in the particular disaster situation.

One unique form of assistance that is eligible for ONA funding are the group flood insurance policies offered past FEMA after major flood disasters.⁸ The unabridged premium per household is $600 which is paid from ONA funds. The state provides the names of the households to be included in the group policy to the National Overflowing Insurance Program (NFIP). These are households that have received assistance under the IHP program. Substantially, the policy is covering the maximum corporeality of IHP awards (currently $33,000). The term of the policy is for 36 months and begins threescore days after the appointment of the applicable disaster declaration. FEMA provides a certificate of coverage to each household. FEMA will again contact the household 60 days earlier the policy is slated to expire. That notice will include encouragement to the household to contact an insurance broker to obtain a standard alluvion insurance policy.

Example Management Services

A companion to the provision of IHP services is the authorisation for states to request Case Management Services to assist families and individuals in organizing assistance and ensuring that they are accessing the various forms of help that may exist available. The governor of an impacted state may request the implementation of Disaster Instance Management (DCM) in the event of a presidentially declared disaster that includes Private Assistance. DCM allows for firsthand services to address disaster-caused unmet needs, such every bit technical assistance, outreach, initial triage, and disaster case management casework. The DCM program may likewise provide for Disaster Case Direction Land Grants, which may allow for DCM providers to supply services to survivors with long-term disaster-caused unmet needs. This program can be helpful to IHP clients working to reestablish their pre-disaster lives and assist them in understanding both the potential and limits of IHP help.⁹

The IHP Procedure

Assistance to individuals and households is not automatic under a presidential annunciation. It must exist specifically requested by the governor in his or her letter of asking.¹⁰ The governor's asking would likewise include estimates of need based on a preliminary damage assessment (PDA).^eleven The PDA includes estimates of the number of homes affected, the caste of damage, the estimated amounts of insurance coverage, and other demographic data such as household income and percentages of elderly residents. FEMA has provided an operations manual for damage assessment past the country that details the factors that need to exist validated in a request for Private Assistance (IA):

Cause of harm
Jurisdictions impacted and concentration of damage
Types of homes
Homeownership rate of impacted homes
Pct of affected households with insurance coverage appropriate to the peril
Number of homes impacted and caste of damage
Inaccessible communities
Special Flood Hazard Areas, sanctioned communities, Coastal Bulwark Resource System zones and other protected areas
Primary or secondary residence
Other relevant PDA information, such every bit income levels, poverty, trauma, and special needs.¹²

During the period 2004 through 2013 in that location were 561 major disaster declarations. Of that total, 211 declarations were fabricated for both Public Aid (PA) and IA while 25 declarations were made for IA only. The remaining 325 declarations were for PA merely.¹³ Simply over twoscore% of all presidential major disaster declarations during this flow resulted in a designation for IA. The declarations contain the designations of the areas covered (e.k., counties) by the declaration and the types of assistance (PA and/or IA) available. For example, the pie chart at the top of Figure one reflects that division of the types of assistance provided nether the declarations and the example below it is a major disaster annunciation for Due south Carolina during the fall of 2015 (DR-4241-SC) that illustrates how the types of help are mentioned within a announcement, including the designation of counties. The designations indicate the types of aid being provided for individual counties within a land or tribal areas. Both the initial county designations, and whatever subsequent additions, are published in the Federal Register.

Figure one. Disaster Declarations

Assistance offered in declarations (2004-2013), and an case of a disaster declaration

Source: Based on information from fema.gov declarations folio. This format is the public press release which contains the data contained in the proclamation. The declaration is DR4241SC.

Notes: Graphic created by CRS.

IHP Activation

When the IA programme has been designated, several steps are taken by FEMA. The activation of the program means that the National Processing Service Centers (NPSCs) are staffed up to receive applications via FEMA's 1-800 number equally well every bit online.¹⁴ In some instances FEMA, in concert with the state, volition too fix onsite Disaster Recovery Centers (DRCs) to take applications in person in the designated disaster area for those without power or the ability to request assistance by phone or online, or but to provide greater degree of service. These DRCs as well usually include representatives from other agencies and entities such equally country and local governments, the American Red Cross, SBA, and other organizations that are office of the recovery process.

The NPSCs take in the corking majority of all applications. The facilities are located in Maryland, Texas, and Virginia. Trained operators work with disaster survivors to advise them of the data that they should take available, and ask a series of questions to determine eligibility.

Figure two. FEMA Processing Centers for Individual Help
NPSCs and DRCs

Source: Photo of Kingstree, SC, Disaster Recovery Heart from FEMA LIbrary. Kingstree was a part of the South Carolina declaration, DR4241.

Notes: Graphics created by CRS.

These questions include requests for data regarding the buying of the chief residence, the type of insurance covering the holding (both homeowners and overflowing insurance), the number of residents in the household and the types of assistance that may be required.

A previously persistent problem (particularly during the Katrina recovery) was that some applicants claimed vacation homes as master residences. FEMA addressed this using "Lexis/Nexis to run an occupancy check on the registrants' damaged dwelling house."^xv By using that system, FEMA has reduced the number of improper payments and has been able to more accurately verify the condition of the domicile.

The IHP application process can also include referrals to SBA for its disaster loan program. This is an of import step since SBA loans tin can provide more resources to accomplish repairs than the capped IHP program. In improver, this dialogue can also inform FEMA of other needs that might exist necessary, such as the Case Management program. It can besides expedite the recovery process when it is articulate that the applicant will not qualify for a disaster loan and thus may demand extensive FEMA assistance, including ONA.

A principal result of the IA interview process is to arrange an inspection of the damaged property. During this inspection, FEMA again seeks to confirm that it is a primary residence.¹⁶ FEMA has multiple contracts with inspection companies that allow them, in most instances, to rapidly perform inspections, verify insurance information, and with more specificity, determine the ONA requirements for a given household.¹⁷ The inspectors review the damage to the home only also discuss the status of the housing with the applicant and confirm information regarding insurance coverage as well as home ownership.

Figure 3. Application Approval, 2004-2013

Owners and Renters

Source: Graphic created past CRS.

Notes: Based on FEMA 2014 Information.

The inspections are conducted as soon as possible following the announcement. During the flow of 2004-2013, about 69% of all endemic homes applying for FEMA aid were approved for some form of assistance. During that same flow, just over 61% of renters requesting assistance have been canonical.¹⁸

Appropriate Housing Assist

A challenge in the recovery phase of a disaster is the management of expectations. This is especially truthful for aid to families and individuals since the limits on the corporeality of aid (due east.one thousand., the $33,000 cap) are not always articulate to all parties involved. But a further complication affecting expectations is the statutory authority to make up one's mind what housing help will be provided to an applicant. It is of import to consider that the choices of types of aid to be employed are at the discretion of the President (and this authorisation has been delegated to FEMA). While the convenience to the individual is a gene, and then as well are costs involved. Department 408 of the Stafford Act states that:

The President shall determine appropriate types of housing assistance to be provided under this department to individuals and households described in subsection (a)(1) based on considerations of price effectiveness, convenience to individuals and households, and such other factors as the President may consider appropriate.¹⁹

At that place is, nonetheless, a procedure for families and individuals to appeal plan determinations regarding eligibility, length, and amount of aid and other decisions related to the IHP program.²⁰

Increasing Housing Resources

Ane boosted tool available to FEMA is a airplane pilot program (Stafford Human activity, Section 689i) that permits FEMA to negotiate with private owners of rental properties that are not currently set up for employ. FEMA can then undertake repairs to the units in exchange for sectional use of the units for FEMA temporary housing needs for that disaster. A 2009 FEMA study to Congress reviewed two attempts to implement the pilot. The pilot projects in Iowa and Texas offered the prospects of increased housing at a cost that is significantly less than direct housing assistance. Equally the FEMA study noted:

The approved guess for repairing the 7 units in the Cedar Valley apartment circuitous in Iowa was $44,709.83. The holding owner provided FEMA with a breakdown of the monthly operating cost (i.due east., labor, insurance, ongoing maintenance) for each unit. FEMA agreed to provide the property owner $328 per unit, per month, for the length of the charter (xiv months). The full operating toll for this project was $32,144, bringing FEMA'southward total plan contribution to $76,854. The price to install and maintain seven manufactured homes for the same menstruum of fourth dimension would have cost FEMA $439,376. Thus, the savings compared to manufactured housing was estimated to be $362,522.

The canonical gauge for repairing the 32 units in Carelton Courtyard Apartments in Texas was $494,820. The belongings owner provided FEMA with a breakdown of the monthly operating cost for each unit. FEMA agreed to provide the property owner $419 per unit of measurement, per month, for the length of the lease (thirty months). The total operating costs for this projection is $402,538, bringing FEMA's total plan contribution to $897,358. The cost to install and maintain 32 manufactured homes for the aforementioned period of time would have cost FEMA $2,650,624. Thus, the estimated savings compared to manufactured housing was $1,753,266.²¹

While the approach described higher up may not e'er be possible, depending on the location of the disaster effect, it arguably presents another opportunity to create temporary housing resource in the affected surface area. The Sandy Recovery Improvement Act in 2013 (SRIA, P.L. 113-2) codified this approach into law and provides FEMA with an pick to create additional available housing units in the disaster area.²² This approach is also a potential help to the local community as it funds local repair work and leaves the customs with more rental stock.

Housing Aid Provided by Category

As noted before, the master types of assistance provided under IHP are repairs, rental help and Other Needs Assistance (ONA). With the exception of Hurricane Katrina (which is an outlier), for most disasters, the majority of assistance is provided through grants for dwelling repairs to brand a dwelling habitable.²³ That is followed by rental assistance costs and ONA payments. The use of manufactured housing is not common and is a last resort when the other housing options are not available.²⁴

The Effigy 4 pie chart on the right (not including Katrina) illustrates that the plurality of help goes to owner-occupied housing. Within that category the neat majority of funds (74%) are expended for abode repairs, rental assistance, and Other Needs Assistance (ONA). However, the graphic including Katrina shows a significantly smaller amount spent on repairs and a larger corporeality devoted to rental assist for both renters and homeowners, reflecting the caste of damage from that event and the diaspora of survivors in rental properties beyond the nation.

Figure 4. FEMA IHP Assistance by Category, 2004-2013

Source: Based on FEMA 2014 DATA.

Notes: Graphics created past CRS.

Hurricane Katrina damaged or destroyed a significant amount of housing stock along the Gulf Coast, including rental backdrop. This presented limited alternatives for temporary housing for disaster survivors. Many disaster survivors left the surface area to reach available housing because open rental units were frequently exterior the impacted surface area. This led to significant amounts of rental assist payments. In the example of Hurricane Sandy, and in fact for well-nigh disasters, the favored option for homeowners is to repair their homes and remain in them.

FEMA Direct Assist: Manufactured Housing Units

Under the Stafford Act, directly assist is defined as "the provision of temporary housing units, acquired by purchase or lease, directly to individuals and households."²⁵ In an attempt to provide a housing choice for people who wished to stay in their communities following Katrina, FEMA established large mobile abode parks. Given the large number of homes that sustained major harm, FEMA had to chop-chop assemble a big mobile dwelling house inventory to address the numbers of families affected. The utilise of mobile homes during 2005 was the largest mobile abode and trailer performance FEMA had ever attempted. In contrast, given the substantial rental market place on the eastern seaboard, as well equally fewer homes totally destroyed or with major damage, the used of mobile homes following Hurricane Sandy in 2012 was minimal.

Effigy 5. Mobile Home Usage, 2003-2014

Source: Based on FEMA 2014 DATA.

Notes: Created by CRS.

The Katrina recovery required a large number of hastily purchased mobile homes, which led to the problem of unsafe units being employed for temporary housing needs. This principally involved high levels of formaldehyde in some of the FEMA units.²⁶ In subsequent years, FEMA established its ain standards regarding air levels for formaldehyde in units. FEMA decided in 2007 to provide for temporary housing

manufactured homes built under HUD regulations in HUD regulated factories that are designed and built as long-term housing. HUD Code provides known national structure standards for transportable housing, a knowledgeable private sector infrastructure, and a well understood arroyo toward providing safe, secure, and habitable housing. In improver FEMA, in conjunction with the United States Fire Administration, has reviewed the benefits of including residential burn sprinkler systems as role of FEMA's basic manufactured home requirements and has determined that adding residential burn sprinkler systems is in the all-time interest of disaster survivor safety. FEMA includes residential fire sprinkler systems in all new manufactured homes. This will increase occupant safe as many manufactured homes installed by FEMA are located in rural areas that do non take burn down departments able to accomplish homes as quickly as many urban burn down departments.²⁷

An additional trouble at the time of Katrina was limited assistance or services being provided to large mobile home parks, whether they were existing parks that FEMA had augmented or large parks FEMA had developed. During the Katrina recovery period, FEMA support to group sites consisted mainly of public safety related requirements. In the years since, FEMA's interpretation of such support has expanded. In a memorandum describing "wrap around services" FEMA leadership defined that term as including

bones social services, access to transportation, police/burn protection, emergency wellness care services, communications, utilities, grocery stores, child care and educational institutions. The availability of common areas such as playgrounds, recreational fields, and designated pet areas may too be considered when establishing a temporary housing group site.²⁸

Potential Issues for Congress

Equity in Disaster Housing Assistance

While FEMA assistance through the IHP program is bachelor for presidentially declared disasters (and SBA disaster loan help may be available even for events that are not alleged disasters by the President), a select number of disaster events receive an expanded form of federal assistance to meet housing needs. This can create differing tiers of disaster housing assist for alleged disasters depending on what actions Congress takes. Similarly, there are variations of housing assistance in which FEMA uses essential assistance government to maintain habitability (such as the Pace program discussed later in this section) which may non lend themselves to each disaster situation.

The following word provides some context to empathise how different programs that are not a part of IHP can complement one another, and IHP, merely also can cause some defoliation for the applicants as well. All of these programs may exist placed under the rubric of disaster housing, only absent careful coordination can be a cause for misunderstanding and duplication of authoritative attempt and, peradventure, benefits.

CDBG-DR Availability

In some instances that are perceived equally catastrophic events, Congress provides additional resources to states and local governments through the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) program. This is unremarkably identified as CDBG-DR indicating its apply in disasters. This approach to augment country resource has been used occasionally, but is not a part of every disaster declaration. It can be applied widely by "allowing states and communities to reprogram their almanac CDBG funds to respond to disasters, however, Congress also has provided supplemental assistance to areas afflicted by natural and man-made catastrophes of a significant magnitude."²⁹

In light of the great flexibility afforded state and local government recipients of the CDBG program and its many uses, the programme has been called upon to address unexpected situations. However, it is not always an choice for a state to reprogram at the time of a disaster. That is why state and local officials have contended that the additional CDBG funds provided through disaster supplemental appropriations (CDBG-DR) are so vital to the affected states. In these instances, Congress has been cognizant of potential needs across the recent, big scale disaster events and has sought a wide distribution for the CDBG funds dedicated to disaster relief activities. For case, post-obit Hurricane Sandy, the supplemental appropriations legislation covered states afflicted past Hurricane Sandy but besides reached beyond those affected states at that fourth dimension equally well. The language provided CDBG resources

for necessary expenses related to disaster relief, long-term recovery, restoration of infrastructure and housing, and economical revitalization in the almost impacted and distressed areas resulting from a major disaster declared pursuant to the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.) due to Hurricane Sandy and other eligible events in agenda years 2011, 2012, and 2013, for activities authorized under title I of the Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 (42 U.s.a.C. 5301 et seq.)³⁰

Funds provided by the Hurricane Sandy supplemental appropriations are notwithstanding bachelor in accounts in 17 states and 17 local areas.³¹ The funds, equally noted in the legislation above, can be used for a number of different purposes that contribute to the recovery of the state and the disaster-impacted community. While the funds are distributed more widely, in that location are withal problems with the timing of such funding since some of these funds may become available long afterward many families accept had to reach decisions on their future plans following the disaster event. Those decisions may include the acceptance of FEMA housing assistance too every bit SBA disaster loans. Those sources of help more often than not precede the availability of CDBG-DR.

CDBG funds take often been used to aggrandize mitigation projects and, equally in the Sandy recovery, accept been used to provide additional assistance to depression-income residents for unmet housing needs. Even so, this form of assistance (CDBG-DR) is not available for every declared disaster and there may exist some smaller disasters that could do good from this form of supplemental federal assistance, rather than merely having IHP and SBA assistance available.

It is worth noting that the Administration's upkeep request for FY2017 includes a proposal that may begin to address this event. Though not committing boosted funds for disaster work in the annual budget, it does propose a consolidation of authoritative funds for HUD's Function of Customs Planning and Evolution (CPD) from previous supplemental awards to bring some consistency to the program. The budget linguistic communication noted that

every bit existing CPD internal direction structures and protocols are designed, staffed, and funded to address needs associated with annually funded programs. These internal structures have piddling chapters to expand for the unpredictable scope of a CDBG-DR supplemental appropriation that may be a multiple of the annual CPD-wide budget. CPD proposes to consolidate remaining balances from these administrative allowances into a single account that can exist used to support all CDBG-DR appropriations. This approach will raise the usefulness of remaining authoritative funds, and will ensure that CPD has the ability to hire term staff, perform on-site monitoring, and provide preparation focused exclusively on the CDBG-DR portfolio. Moreover, the administrative funds provided under P.L. 113-2 will expire on September 30, 2017, but pregnant program direction requirements will continue well past that date; extending the period of availability of the consolidated funds will allow HUD to accost this major concern.³²

This blazon of improved structure could contribute to a more reliable approach by HUD to non merely the management of supplemental funds but too for a more constructive reprogramming of electric current CDBG funds that could assist states to respond to disasters not included in a supplemental appropriations legislative parcel and provide a more equitable approach for all disaster declarations.

This discussion too raises the question equally to whether Congress would consider setting aside a pool of CDBG funds that could be triggered with the issuance of a presidential major disaster declaration. Or perchance consider making such funds available only for major disaster declarations providing assistance to families and individuals. This would not preclude the CDBG-DR awards made in supplemental legislation, but it could as well provide a consistently available corporeality of CDBG-DR dollars for all declared major disasters to enhance housing options, if needed.

Grouping Flood Insurance Linkages

The Group Flood Insurance policies are a iii-year investment that may or may non be extended depending on the households' ability or willingness to exercise so. These investments might increase in worth with linkages to other FEMA programs such as mitigation grants (in helping to place vulnerable areas) or HUD'due south CDBG program that could help to subsidize the polices for low income households. Some social service groups have suggested that the policies be extended in some course. For example, in a 2016 letter of the alphabet from Catholic Charities USA to the Firm Appropriations DHS Subcommittee stated: "Nosotros urge yous to direct FEMA to develop mechanisms for 3^rd party group policies to be maintained for persons in disasters who cannot beget to purchase and maintain overflowing insurance." While expenses of maintaining polices may exist prohibitive, exploring approaches for such an extension is arguably a consistent part of the message; that insurance in place is the strongest preparation for providing a family an opportunity to recover from disaster damage.

Maximum Amount of Aid

The maximum amount of assistance for individuals was established in the Disaster Mitigation Human action of 2000 at $25,000.³³ Over the final xv years that amount, in accordance with the law'due south adjustment limit, has grown by $8,000 to the current corporeality of $33,000.³⁴ Congress may decide to consider whether the maximum amount is an acceptable amount for providing supplemental aid to a household after a disaster incident. The amount does appear to provide the necessary amount to provide the maximum amount of housing rental assistance under the law: 18 months. In improver, any remaining amounts could then be devoted to Other Needs Aid. Also, it should be noted that FEMA does non deduct the cost of a manufactured housing unit of measurement against the IHP limit since the unit may revert back to FEMA. But it might also be argued that an increased corporeality would exist an added impetus to the recovery of the local economy. Also a larger IHP accolade could exist especially helpful to comport out the clause of Department 408 that may provide "financial help for the replacement of possessor-occupied private residences damaged past a major disaster."³⁵ Similarly, a larger award could as well help a household to comply with that section's flood insurance requirement. However hit a remainder is important since a more generous amount might discourage the purchase of insurance.

The Footstep Program Availability

Similar to the support offered by CDBG another program not always available in every disaster is the Sheltering and Temporary Essential Power (Stride) program.³⁶ Under this plan FEMA works with state and local governments to achieve out to homeowners to perform certain necessary and essential measures to help "restore power, oestrus and hot water to primary residences that could regain power through necessary and essential repairs. Pace can help residents safely shelter-in-place in their homes awaiting more than permanent repairs."³⁷ This was a pilot programme created by FEMA to meet this specific need merely is similar to previous FEMA efforts to implement emergency repairs, such every bit the "Operation Blueish Roof" programs it employed in the Caribbean following devastating hurricane damage in the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico.³⁸ Similar operations were also carried out in Texas following a string of tornadoes in 2007.

1 stardom is that the Step program home repairs are not accomplished under the authority of the IHP program. The STEP programme is funded nether Department 403 of the Stafford Act, which covers Essential Assistance.³⁹ This represents meaning home repair spending that is not available in each declared disaster. Afterward Sandy, for example, FEMA had reported that in New York City, more than than 17 grand units had received these immediate repairs at a cost surpassing $466 million.^forty In many instances, the Pace plan may accept been all the assist the household required, but the household would have remained eligible for additional assistance under IHP if needed and eligible.

The STEP program, or something like to it, has been employed past FEMA to come across urgent needs for sheltering. Information technology may be of interest to Congress to learn how the Step program has worked and whether it could be scaled for use on disasters of all sizes. FEMA'due south IG reported on the program during Sandy and had generally favorable conclusions regarding the pilot program.

We determined that FEMA's actions in promulgating this pilot program are consistent with the regime granted by the Stafford Human action. Given the number of individuals affected by Hurricane Sandy, FEMA needs to maintain strong internal controls. We commend FEMA for its rapid response in designing this urgently needed program less than a month after Hurricane Sandy devastated communities on the Atlantic coast. If successful, the program can provide the help necessary to save lives, protect public health and rubber, and protect property. Nonetheless, FEMA needs to be mindful of the vulnerabilities associated with implementing pilot programs and to establish adequate internal controls to protect against those vulnerabilities.⁴¹

Condos and Co-ops Eligibility

The Pace programme can also provide aid to the owners of large buildings. This partially addressed some other problems raised following the impact of Hurricane Sandy with regard to FEMA's treatment of condos and co-ops. While some assistance could be provided to condo or co-op residents under the IHP program, only as it is for any homeowner who suffered damage, there were other complications. One of the principal areas of contention has been how to address common areas in these buildings. The IHP program does not accept any dominance to address common areas since the programme only addresses where someone lives. Still, the 403 Essential Assistance program could potentially address such areas. But FEMA's policy guidance directs that such mutual areas must take the bulk of their use directed toward common purposes. FEMA'due south Policy Guidance notes that a facility may exist eligible if

Facility use is not limited to any of the following:

A certain number of individuals;

A defined group of individuals who accept a financial involvement in the facility, such equally a condominium association;

Certain classes of individuals; or

An unreasonably restrictive geographical surface area, such equally a neighborhood within a community;⁴²

Since the guidance explicitly sees a condominium association equally ineligible if it limits utilize of its facility to its members, at that place has been an extended dialogue between FEMA and the representatives of condo and co-op associations. There is proposed legislation that would direct FEMA to go on to engage this upshot and piece of work to find new proposals to address the issue.⁴³

The Sequencing of Housing Assistance

As previously noted, FEMA assistance can be available swiftly. One time the program is activated, applications are reviewed and services tin begin, such as arranging inspections and, in some instances, performing disaster repairs under something similar a STEP program equally noted earlier regarding Functioning Blueish Roof. This might then be followed by an SBA disaster declaration which makes home loans available for much larger amounts than the IHP caps. Oftentimes, SBA declarations volition closely follow presidential major disaster declarations. In addition, determining eligibility for SBA loans tin be a part of FEMA'southward application process.

While those initial steps happen rapidly, the availability of CDBG-DR funds depend on congressional action to augment available funding, although CDBG grantees (states and some local governments) are free to reprogram their regular CDBG allocation to address an imminent threat to the wellness and safe of their residents. But the arrival of supplemental CDBG funds may be weeks or months after homeowners have received some IHP assistance and and then arrived at some decisions regarding pursuing an SBA loan. This can result in a situation where a household may accept a loan only to learn afterward that CDBG grants at favorable terms take become available for similar purposes through the country. This can open upwardly a contentious procedure in which homeowners may request a counterfoil of their loan in exchange for receiving a country grant.⁴⁴ But while these conflicts can occur, information technology should also be noted that the start priority of the CDBG grants are low-income families and individuals that may not qualify for SBA loans. However, the CDBG low income requirement can be and oft has been waived or modified to meet the needs of a larger eye income population in big disaster events.

The State Role in Disaster Housing

While CDBG funds are provided through the states, the actual role that states play in disaster housing, equally administered past FEMA in the disaster recovery procedure, is quite express. Not just do states not contribute to the costs of disaster housing through any price-shares with regard to rental or repair expenditures, they also practice not have any obligation to assist in the physical establishment of temporary manufactured housing communities.⁴⁵ This stands in contrast to the close partnership that exists between FEMA and the states for both the PA and Hazard Mitigation Grant Programs (HMGP) where state staff work with applicants (east.chiliad., local government and not-governmental organizations) and FEMA in the assistants of the programme.

States do have a 25% cost-share to meet for grants to families and individuals from the ONA program and, based on that contribution, the states consult with their respective FEMA regions on the type and extent of the ONA grants that will be available inside their states post-obit a declaration. Congress may cull to consider whether a greater involvement by states might meliorate the quality of disaster recovery for families and individuals and help to foster the types of programs that might exist available for nonfederal disaster events.

Contempo FEMA initiatives to update IA factors considered when reviewing a governor's request for a major disaster announcement encourage more than country interest. Similarly, a contempo FEMA proposal to create a PA Deductible to assess when a state might qualify for Public Assistance also encourages the establishment of country programs and a greater state commitment to the recovery process.

One example of this approach is the suggestion of a new gene titled, "State Fiscal Chapters and Resource Availability." As the FEMA narrative in the Federal Register Observe observes:

When the customs is engaged in emergency management, it becomes empowered to identify its needs and the existing resource that may be used to accost them. Collectively, we can determine the all-time means to organize and strengthen community assets, capacities, and interests. This allows us, every bit a nation, to expand our reach and deliver services more efficiently and cost effectively to build, sustain, and improve our capability to set for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards.⁴⁶

Similarly, in the Federal Register Detect proposing consideration of a Disaster Deductible when because requests for a PA proclamation, FEMA's Notice suggests:

It could incentivize proactive fiscal planning by Recipients for disasters, encouraging them to set aside funding specifically reserved for disaster response and recovery. The availability of credits toward the deductible could incentivize increased planning and adoption of specific mitigation activities which will upshot in risk-informed mitigation strategies on a broad calibration. States may be encouraged to develop and fund special programs such as emergency management programs and individual help programs, as such plans may be credited toward satisfaction of the deductible.⁴⁷

In concert with these suggestions, Congress may consider whether greater involvement past the states in FEMA'southward disaster housing plan might improve the overall program and highlight state responsibilities. Currently, FEMA may consult with the country and local governments when seeking available locations for manufactured housing. Just other assistance, such as home repairs, are 100% federally funded. Arguably with some land "peel in the game" there would be a greater sensation by the country of the extent and types of assistance being provided. Information technology would likewise increase the state's interest in accountability and assuring the quality and timeliness of the repairs as well equally the importance of analogous the applicative programs.

Summary Considerations

In evaluating the history of this topic it can be argued that disaster housing has been driven past the supposition, by both FEMA and its state partners, of a temporary, short-term mission. This assumption was based upon the shared experiences of most non-catastrophic disaster events. These "garden variety disasters" required minimal help to house those fabricated homeless by the disaster upshot. Additionally, scant attention arguably has been paid to longer-term housing missions resulting in a program some have described as having limited resources, which may suffer from an approach that could arguably be considered comparatively comprehensive.

All the same, in recent years in that location have been a number of steps taken by Congress, such as authorizing Case Management Services and increasing FEMA's ability to create housing resources in the disaster expanse, as well equally initiatives by FEMA that include improved manufactured housing and wrap-around services to support such housing. These incremental pieces have contributed to a more comprehensive temporary housing programme with flexible options to offer disaster survivors.

Too, post-obit large, catastrophic events, the combination of IHP with HUD'southward CDBG-DR program and SBA disaster loans can present a range of types of help that can be fashioned to meet the needs of individual disaster survivors. Even so, as noted earlier, the existence of all such assistance in each declared disaster is not guaranteed.

But the remaining challenges can exist addressed through increased communication by FEMA and its country partners. The most significant test is to manage expectations regarding the assistance that is available post-obit a disaster. That challenge is coupled with the potential need to create a culture of preparedness that would underline to homeowners that IHP help is express and does not supplant the greater benefits of insurance coverage.

It is not a simple message, since the goal is to offer assurance to the public that, while supplemental help is available, information technology must be understood that insurance and personal mitigation measures should also exist considered prior to a disaster effect. The IHP program is there for those without the resources to pursue insurance coverage or other preparedness tools. But for those families and individuals able to have a role in their own recovery, an appreciation for the importance of insurance and mitigation would reduce the need of the IHP program, and result in safer and more resilient communities when disaster strikes.

Author Contact Data

[author name scrubbed], Analyst in Emergency Management and Homeland Security Policy ([e-mail address scrubbed], [phone number scrubbed])

Acknowledgments

Special thanks to CRS Visual Data Specialist Amber Wilhelm and sometime CRS Research Associate [author proper name scrubbed] for their contributions to this report.

Footnotes

i.	P.Fifty. 82-107, Missouri-Kansas-Oklahoma-Inundation Housing Relief, August 3, 1951. For boosted data on the Declaration process meet CRS Report R43784, FEMA'south Disaster Declaration Process: A Primer , by [author proper noun scrubbed].
ii.	Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Federal Emergency Management Bureau (FEMA), "A History of Federal Disaster Relief Legislation, 1950-1974," FEMA-45, September, 1983.
3.	The SBA program was established under P.50. 85-356, Section 7(b), 72 STAT.387, as amended. The DUA programme was established under P.L. 91-606, Section 240, 84 STAT. 1755. For more than data on the SBA loan program see CRS Report R41309, The SBA Disaster Loan Program: Overview and Possible Bug for Congress , by [author name scrubbed]. For information on the DUA program see CRS Report RS22022, Disaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA) , by [author proper name scrubbed].
four.	This corporeality is adjusted annually in accordance with the Consumer Toll Index. The latest adjustment was posted in a Federal Register Find—FEMA, Federal Register 80, October 15, 2015, p. 62086.
5.	44 C.F.R. 206.101 (e)(ii).
6.	42 U.s.a.C. 5174(b)(2)(B).
7.	For a detailed list of ONA assistance see FEMA Disaster Help Fact Canvas, March, 2015, available at http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1434645692423-a8341b2317b9bcd4eca23aac8e8e1ea/IHP_FactSheet_final508.pdf. The Mail service-Hurricane Sandy legislation (P.L. 113-ii) expanded ONA eligibility to include child intendance expenses.
8.	44 C.F.R. 61.17.
9.	42 U.Due south.C. 5189d, this authority was established in Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act (PKEMRA), P.L. 109-295, October 4, 2006, 120 STAT. 1453.
10.	For the purpose of this study, hereinafter, the term governor, in all cases, includes tribal leaders that serve the same role for disaster requests on tribal lands.
11.	While it is preferred that a PDA precede any declaration, in instances of catastrophic events, often declarations and designations of assist are made before PDAs are completed. Then PDAs are after conducted to target assist.
12.	DHS/FEMA, Operations Transmission: A Guide to Assessing Impairment Cess Harm and Impact, March 31, 2016, p. 50.
13.	For more information on FEMA'due south PA program see CRS Written report R43990, FEMA's Public Assist Grant Program: Background and Considerations for Congress , by [author name scrubbed] and [author name scrubbed].
14.	Online registration is available at DisasterAssistance.gov.
15.	FEMA Part of Legislative Affairs, email response to CRS IA questions, September 24, 2014.
16.	Ibid.
17.	Due to the differences in the programs, and the information they are collecting and the size of the possible grants vs. loans, FEMA and SBA conduct their inspections separately. This has been a source of some irritation among disaster survivors, simply the inspections remain carve up. For boosted information on the SBA Disaster Loan Program see CRS Report R41309, The SBA Disaster Loan Program: Overview and Possible Issues for Congress , past [author name scrubbed].
18.	CRS analysis of FEMA IHP data, plant at http://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/30714. Data used for this analysis was published October 10, 2014. Henceforth to exist termed FEMA 2014 Data.
19.	42 The statesC. 5174(b) 92) (A).
xx.	44 C.F.R. 206.101 (m).
21.	DHS/FEMA, Individuals and Households Pilot Programme, Fiscal Year 2009 Report to Congress, May xix, 2009, pp.10 and 11.
22.	P.L. 113-ii, Section 1103, January 29, 2013, 127 Stat. 42.
23.	For Katrina there was a much larger corporeality expended on rental aid both to survivors spread out in 38 states, and likewise through the Disaster Housing Help Program (DHAP), a FEMA partnership with HUD that provided rental assistance for several years after the consequence. This was partly due also to the all-encompassing damage to homes that required larger grants for repair than are available under IHP. Some of this demand was addressed through Louisiana's The Route Dwelling programme that was primarily financed through funding from HUD'due south CDBG plan.
24.	Even so, a contempo example of the utilise of straight assistance is the May 2015 annunciation for the Oglala Sioux Tribe of the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. Given the remote location, the utilize of manufactured housing has provided the long-term housing help the area required. Past March 2016 the 100^th manufactured housing unit of measurement was installed to run into long-term housing needs created by the disaster consequence.
25.	42 UsaC. 5174(c)(B).
26.	U.S. Congress, House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, "Hurricane Katrina Response—Commission Probes FEMA's Response to Report of Toxic Trailers," Supplemental Memo and Exhibits, July 19, 2007, at http://oversight.firm.gov/story.asp?ID=1420.
27.	FEMA Part of Legislative Affairs, Memo to CRS, March 7, 2016.
28.	FEMA Memo, Michael Thousand. Grimm, Director, Individual Assistance Sectionalisation, "Wrap-Around Services for Temporary Housing Group Sites," November 21, 2012.
29.	For additional, detailed data run into CRS Study R43520, Community Evolution Block Grants and Related Programs: A Primer , by [author name scrubbed].
30.	P.L. 113-2, January 29, 2013, 126 Stat. 36. For boosted information, meet CRS Report R42892, Summary Study: Congressional Action on the FY2013 Disaster Supplemental , coordinated by [writer name scrubbed].
31.	Department of Housing and Urban Development, CDBG-DR Active Disaster Grants and Grantee Contact Information, https://www.hudexchange.info.programs/cdbg-dr-grantee-contact-information.
32.	HUD FY2017 Budget, Customs Planning and Development, 2017 Summary Statement and Initiatives, "v. Proposal in the Budget—Consolidation of Disaster Authoritative Appropriations," p. fifteen-13, http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/documents/huddoc?id=15-Community_Dev.Fund.pdf. CPD refers to the Office of Community Planning and Development.
33.	42 UsC. 5174(h).
34.	This adjustment is made per the constabulary'southward management to accommodate information technology annually "to reflect changes in the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers published by the Section of Labor."
35.	42 UsC. 5174(c)(3).
36.	Currently for the Louisiana disaster, Louisiana-DR-4277, a similar program chosen "Shelter at Dwelling house" is being used to address emergency housing needs. The amount of assistance is capped at $15,000 per dwelling house. See FEMA Daily Fact Sail, 8-30-16-DR-4277.
37.	DHS/FEMA, "FEMA Footstep Programme in Action," March 19, 2014, http://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/images/67242.
38.	DHS/FEMA, "Operation Blue Roof," Release Number 1539-164, October 2, 2004, http://www.fema.gov/news-release/2004/x/02/operation-bluish-roof.
39.	42 U.s.a.C. 5170b.
twoscore.	Memo from FEMA Office of Legislative Diplomacy, to CRS, August five, 2014.
41.	DHS/FEMA Office of Inspector General, OIG-13-15, December 2012.
42.	DHS/FEMA Public Assistance and Policy Guide, FP 104-009-2, January 2016, p. eleven.
43.	H.R. 1471, 114^th Congress, ii^nd Session, March 1, 2016, Title III, Section 308.
44.	For a detailed discussion of this issue, run into CRS Written report R44553, SBA and CDBG-DR Duplication of Benefits in the Assistants of Disaster Aid: Background, Policy Issues, and Options for Congress , past [author name scrubbed] and [writer proper name scrubbed].
45.	Earlier iterations of FEMA regulations insisted on states existence responsible for site locations and the establishment of utilities on those sites. But those requirements were dropped as FEMA assumed a greater office in the housing mission to ensure consistent applications of the program.
46.	https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2015/eleven/12/2015-28570/factors-considered-when-evaluating-a-governors-request-for-individual-aid-for-a-major#h-36.
47.	https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2016/01/20/2016-00997/establishing-a-deductible-for-femas-public-assist-program#h-10.